Interactive Glossary -
Basic Concepts In Reversal Theory
Reversal
theory provides an analysis of the experience of everyday life,
showing that a normal person will display different personalities at
different times, meaning that he or she will see the world, and act
in it, in different ways at different moments. These different types
of personality (motivational styles) are each based on a fundamental
motive/value, such as achievement, control or freedom. This implies
that human personality has an essentially dynamic quality, and that
inter-individual differences cannot be understood without reference
to intra-individual differences.
The following
entries may be used either as a glossary or, by entering at any point and
following the hyperlinks (represented by words in italics), as an
introduction to the theory.
Autic and Alloic
states. These two
metamotivational states represent alternative ways of experiencing
one’s relationships with others. In the autic state (from the ancient
Greek autos meaning self) one evaluates the outcome of actions in terms of
how far they aid oneself, whereas in the alloic state (from the ancient
Greek allos meaning other), one evaluates them in terms of how far they
are of benefit to others with whom one identifies. The basic value of the
autic state is individualism and of the alloic state is transcendence.
Alloic state.
See Autic and Alloic states.
Bistability.
A system is bistable if it has two alternative stable positions towards
which it tends to return when disturbed. A light switch would be a simple
example. Reversal theory suggests that motivational systems are bistable,
in the sense that they involve a movement (reversal)
between opposite
metamotivational states, such that one or the other is active at
all time (like the two positions of a light switch) but only one is active
at any particular time. This contrasts with the widespread idea of
homeostasis in motivation theory, that suggests that for the motivational
variables of interest to such theories (e.g. drive, tension, arousal)
there is a tendency to return to one single position (e.g. low drive or
tension, moderate levels of arousal).
Chronotyping.
An error of
overgeneralization that occurs when one generalises from what one knows
about a person at one moment of time to a permanent characterisation of
that person. For example: "he is an unpleasant person" of someone that
one has just met. It can also relate to oneself, e.g. "I am unlovable."
Trait theories of personality systematically commit this error and imply
to people that they cannot change. The
bistability suggested by reversal theory suggests that
chronotyping involves an oversimplification.
Conformist and
negativistic states.
This pair of
metamotivational states represent opposite ways of experiencing
rules (taken in the widest sense to include expectations, social pressure,
conventions, routines, etc). In the conformist state such rules provide
structure and meaning and therefore one is pleased to comply. In the
negativistic state rules of all kinds are experienced as restrictions and
therefore, during the moments when one is in the negativistic state,
opposed. The basic value of the conformist state is that of duty, and of
the negativistic state is that of freedom.
Domain.
An aspect of experience which
constitutes a permanent feature of mental life, and which is characterised
by the opposite interpretations that go to make up a pair of
metamotivational states. There are four such domains:
means-and-ends (characterised by the
telic and paratelic states), rules (characterised by the
conformist and negativistic states), transactions (characterised
by the
mastery and sympathy states), and relationships (characterised by
the
autic and alloic states).
For example, one is always aware of ones purposes and the activities that
one is undertaking to achieve those purposes, and these make up the
means-and-ends domain. But these purposes and activities can enter
experience in the two opposite ways defined by the
telic and paratelic states respectively. The identification of
domains is an essential part of
structural-phenomenology.
Dominance.
The innate tendency to spend more time in one
metamotivational state than its opposite in a given pair of
states. Thus one would be sympathy dominant if one tended to spend more
time in the
sympathy than the
mastery state. Every degree of dominance is possible between the
members of a pair of states, including an exact balance between them.
Dominance may be due especially to the way in which
satiation can build up faster in one direction that the other in a
pair of states. It should be noted that even if a person is
dominant in one state, that person will still be expected to spend time in
the opposite state. In this respect the dominance concept is
fundamentally different from that of a trait. It is also different in
that dominance itself, unlike a trait, will normally be expected to change
over time.
Focality.
A
metamotivational state is focal at a given moment if it is at the
center of attention at that moment. Although four states will be active
at any one time (one from each
domain), normally only one or two of them will be focal in this
sense. If the members of a pair of states are frequently focal then that
pair (or the domain that they make up) may be said to be
salient.
Lability.
The facility, and therefore frequency, with which an individual tends to
switch from one
metamotivational state to another. Thus two people with the same
dominance with respect to a pair of such states, may nevertheless
have different degrees of lability, moving between them more or less
frequently while still tending to spend longer periods of time in one than
the other.
Mastery and
Sympathy states. This
pair of
metamotivational states represent alternative ways of experiencing
transactions between oneself and other people and objects. In the mastery
state the situation is experienced as being about control, and the
transactions are interpreted as being about taking or yielding. In the
sympathy state the situation is experienced as being about affection and
personal relationships, and transactions as being about giving or being
given. The basic value of the mastery state is power, and of the sympathy
state is love.
Metamotivational
state. A state in
which one of a set of basic psychological motives is experienced, and
which organizes mental life around itself for the period that it is
active. Such a state is referred to as metamotivational because it leads
to other motivational variables (such as arousal) or biological motives
(e.g. hunger) being interpreted in a particular way, It can also be
referred to as a
motivational style, although this term makes particular reference
to the general way of seeing and acting that is related to the motivation
concerned. Metamotivational states go in pairs of opposites, such that
one or the other in each pair is active at a particular moment. Since
there are four such pairs, four states are active at any given moment. A
switch from one member of a pair being active to the other member of the
pair being active is referred to as a
reversal. Specifically, the pairs are the
telic and paratelic pair, the
conformist and negativistic pair, the
mastery and sympathy pair, and the
autic and alloic pair.
Motivational
style. A particular
way of seeing the world and of acting in it associated with a particular
metamotivational state. E.g. serious (related to the
telic state) and other-oriented (related to the
alloic state). These styles go in pairs of opposites, each such
pair representing a
domain. There are four such pairs representing between them eight
motivational styles.
Negativistic
state. See Conformist
and Negativistic states.
Parapathic
emotion. An emotion
that is supposedly unpleasant (e.g. disgust, anger) but which in fact will
be enjoyed when it is experienced in the
paratelic state. For example one can enjoy horror while watching
a horror film, or anxiety while reading a thriller novel, or grief while
watching Greek tragedy at the theatre. In these cases particular cases
one experiences parapathic horror, parapathic anxiety and parapathic grief
respectively.
Paratelic state.
See
Telic and Paratelic states.
Protective
frame. When there is
a protective frame in experience, this means that one sees oneself as
effectively immune from the consequences of failure or error and therefore
can enjoy doing what one is doing without having to worry. The protective
frame can be seen as an aspect of the
paratelic state, its absence being associated with the
telic state.
Reversal.
A switch from one to the other of the opposite
metamotivational states that make up a
domain, e.g. from the
telic state being active to the
paratelic state being active, or the converse. Reversals are
provoked by situational change, by frustration and by
satiation. The dynamic processes that result from reversal,
including
bistability, mean that
chronotyping is an inappropriate way of describing people.
Salience.
This applies to
domains. One domain is more salient than another domain if the
individual tends over time to be more aware of the pair of
metamotivational states that make it up than he or she is of the
states that make up the other domain. Another way of putting this is to
say that one domain tends to be more focal than the other: For
example, for one person the conformist and negativistic pair may be more
often focal over time than the
telic and paratelic pair, while for another individual it may be
the other way around. The first individual tends to be more aware of
issues concerning rules and the second of issues concerning means and
ends.
Satiation.
An internal process
that makes a reversal increasingly likely with the passage of time and
which itself leads to an eventual
reversal in the absence of situational change. Imbalances in the
rapidity of such a process as between a
metamotivational state and its opposite may explain to at least
some extent the
dominance of one state over another.
State-balance.
The proportion of time actually spent in each of a pair of
metamotivational states over a specified period of time. This is
likely to be strongly influenced by the dominance of one state over
the other, but the situations that the person has confronted during this
period will also play a part. For example, someone who is telic dominant
may nevertheless show a state-balance towards the paratelic state while on
holiday.
Structural-phenomenology.
This is the general approach adopted in reversal theory,
which involves identifying the structures of experience. These structures
center on
domains,
metamotivational states and the
reversals that can occur between metamotivational states.
Sympathy state.
See Mastery and Sympathy states.
Synergy.
Also known as cognitive
synergy. This occurs when a given perceived identity is experienced as
having incompatible qualities at the same time or in immediate
succession. For example: a painting is both a flat canvas and also a
three-dimensional scene, a pompous man falling down is both dignified and
absurd. In general, synergies are enjoyed in the
paratelic state (where they tend to take such form as jokes,
artworks, etc.) and disliked in the
telic state where they are experienced as dissonances,
ambiguities, etc.
Telic and
paratelic states.
This pair of
metamotivational states comprise two opposite ways of experiencing
means and ends. In the telic state (from the ancient Greek telos meaning
an end), the individual evaluates the activity in terms of how far it
leads towards the achievement of important goals in the future. In the
paratelic state (which adds the Greek para, meaning alongside, to telic),
the ongoing activity is evaluated in terms of the pleasure it gives to the
individual at the moment in question. The telic state tends to lead to
planning ahead and the paratelic to spontaneity. High arousal is disliked
in the telic state where it is experienced as anxiety, and enjoyed in the
paratelic state where it is experienced as excitement. The paratelic
state is characterised by the presence of a
protective frame, and the
telic state by its absence. Supposedly unpleasant emotions are enjoyed in
the paratelic state where they take the form of
parapathic emotions.
Synergies tend to be enjoyed in the paratelic state and disliked
in the telic state.
Michael J. Apter
- August 2003 |
